自転車競技の熟練者１名を対象に，２種類の運動意識（AとB）でペダリングを行った際の，動作，回転踏力，生理的応答，および機械的効率の違いについて比較検討した．運動意識Aはペダル荷重をしながら股関節主動でこぐもの，Bはサドル荷重をしながら膝関節主動でこぐもので，後者は自転車競技の未熟練者に多くみられるこぎ方である．AとBとで多段階のペダリング運動を行った結果，Aの方がオールアウト時間が36秒(４％)長かった．AはBと比べて，負荷の増加に伴い骨盤を前傾させており，足部や大腿部の動作範囲は小さく，効率に優れる動作と考えられた．また，ロード競技の代表的な速度とされる35km/hに相当する運動強度（250W）での回転踏力を分析したところ，AはBよりも変動が小さく，クランクに対してより有効に踏力を与えていると考えられた．酸素摂取量はAの方が各負荷において約８％（１MET相当）低く，機械的効率はAが24.5％，Bが22.7％で，Aの方が1.9％高値を示した．以上のことから，運動意識Aはバイオメカニクス的にも生理的にも効率に優れ，特にロード競技においてはこの意識を活用することで高いパフォーマンスを発揮できると考えられた．

Influence of the bicyclist's movement awareness when pedaling on motion, pedaling power, physical response, and mechanical efficiency: Examination with one bicyclist
The present study examined differences in motion, pedaling power, physical response, and mechanical efficiency when pedaling when the bicyclist used one of two kinds of movement awareness. The participant was an expert bicycling racer. In movement awareness A, he put the pedaling load on his hip joint, whereas in movement awareness B, he kept his knee joint active while putting the load on the saddle. The latter movement is the typical pedaling method of bicycling beginners. After the participant performed various stages of pedaling motion, movement awareness A was found to have a 36-second longer all-out time (4%). In movement awareness A, compared to movement awareness B, his pelvis was bent farther forward, the range of movement of his legs and femoral region was smaller, and his motion efficiency was considered to be higher. An analysis of pedaling power at the motion intensity of 250 W, corresponding to 35 km/hr, showed that the variability of movement awareness A was smaller than that of movement awareness B, which indicated that power was transferred more effectively to the crank. The participant’s oxygen intake in movement awareness A was 8% (equivalent to 1MET) lower at each load. His mechanical efficiency was 24.5% in movement awareness A, and 22.7% in movement awareness B, i.e., his mechanical efficiency was 1.9% higher in movement awareness A. These results suggest that movement awareness A may be superior to movement awareness B biomechanically and physically, and might produce higher performance in road racing.

本研究は, 通常のボールとは大きさの異なるボール (質量は同じ) を投球することによる短期的な適応が, その後の標準球での投球に及ぼす影響を明らかにすることを目的とした. 被検者は, 高校生の野球投手9名 (年齢：16.3±0.7 歳, 身長: 174.3±4.7 cm, 体重: 66.2±4.7 kg, 野球歴：6.8±1.9 yr, 投手歴: 4.1±2.2 yr) を対象とした. 適応期間では, 通常用いるボール (標準球), 標準球よりも10%小さいボール (-10%球), 標準球よりも10%大きいボール (+10%球) を使用し, 各15球投球させた. なお, 実験は, 各条件の効果が互いに影響しないよう, 3日に分けて実施した. 適応効果の評価は, 適応前後におけるボール速度およびコントロール誤差 (捕手が構えた位置からキャッチした位置までの距離) とした. その結果, 平均データからは, 統計上, ボールの大きさの違いによる適応効果の差異は認められなかったが, -10%球と+10%球のコントロール誤差の変化率は, 有意な負の相関係数 (r=-0.732, p<0.05) が示され, 適応効果が得られるボールの大きさには個人差がある傾向が示された. 今後は, 異なる大きさのボールを使用したトレーニングプログラムを検討することで, 投球パフォーマンス向上のためのトレーニング方法の提案につながることが示唆された.

Effects of short term adaptation training with baseballs of different sizes on ball speed and pitching accuracy
The present study examined effects on pitching performance of short term adaptation training with baseballs of different sizes but with the same mass as standard balls. The participants were 9 high school baseball pitchers (age: 16.3±0.7, height: 174.3±4.7 cm, weight: 66.2±4.7 kg, baseball experience: 6.8±1.9 years, pitching experience: 4.1±2.2 years). In the adaptation training, they used balls of three sizes: standard-size balls, balls 10% smaller than the standard, and balls 10% larger. They threw each size of ball 15 times. The adaptation training was conducted on three days in order to eliminate the influence of adaptation training with one size of ball on adaptation training with the other sizes. Data on ball speed and errors in control (i.e., the distance between the set catching position and the actual catching position) were used to evaluate effects of the adaptation training. The averages did not show a statistically significant effect due to ball size, but the variability of the errors in control between the smaller balls and the larger ones was significantly negatively correlated (r=-.732, p<.05), which indicates that there were individual differences in the effects of ball size. These results suggest that adaptation training using balls of different sizes may be a method for improving pitching performance.

バレーボールゲームにおいてスパイクは，総得点の内49%-57%を占めており，ゲームの勝敗を左右する重要な技術である．またスパイクを広い範囲に強く打つためには，高い打点が求められる．高い打点でボールヒットするためには，高い跳躍が必要であり，大学女子バレーボール選手の跳躍高と膝関節筋力についての研究が行われ，両者に有意な関係を示唆する結果が得られている．関節の可動域を大きく活用して跳躍をする方法はビーチ選手特有の技術であり，水平方向に助走速度をとるために，跳躍の際に無意識に前方向に流れてしまう傾向があるインドア選手に対して，ビーチ選手は，膝関節，股関節の可動域を大きく活用し鉛直方向に力積を加えているために，前方向に流れずに跳躍することができる．そこで本研究では，ビーチバレー選手特有の膝関節，股関節の可動域を大きく活用して鉛直方向に跳躍し，前方向に流れずに自身の最高到達点でボールヒットする技術を習得するための練習方法を提案することを目的とした．新たな視点からのアイディアを技術や練習方法に発展させ，コーチングに活かしていく事例や試みは，バレーボール競技をより良いものにしていくために意義があることだろう．

A method for training indoor volleyball players: employing　the taking-off motion for spiking used by beach volleyball players
In volleyball games, 49%-57% of points are scored by spiking. Spiking, therefore, is an important technique that can mean the difference between winning and losing. Furthermore, strong and wide-ranging strikes require players to hit the ball at a high point, which necessitates jumping high. Research has been conducted with university-level female volleyball players to examine the relationship between jumping height and the muscular strength of the players’ knee joints; the results have suggested a significant relationship between these two factors. Beach volleyball players employ a unique technique whereby they jump using the full range of motion of their knee joints, whereas indoor volleyball players tend to move forward inadvertently when jumping in order to maintain their horizontal run-up speed. Beach volleyball players can jump without moving forward because they add vertical impulse by taking advantage of the full range of motion of their knee and hip joints. The present research examined the results of a method for training indoor volleyball players to acquire the technique of hitting the ball at the highest possible point by taking advantage of the full range of motion of the knee and hip joints in order to jump vertically without moving forward, that is, using the technique employed by beach volleyball players. The discussion suggests that developing this into techniques and training methods, and thence utilizing them in coaching, may make a meaningful contribution to the improvement of players’ results in indoor volleyball games.

本研究は，三段跳を専門とする大学男子競技者（H競技者）が「積極的着地」を習得し，競技記録を向上させた約5ヶ月間の取り組みについて，運動の意識や感じ，運動フォームや記録の変化から，その実用性や妥当性を検討した事例研究である．H競技者は，「積極的着地」を習得していると考えられる一流競技者の運動フォームを参考に，ホップ動作を「ホップ空中時の姿勢」，「タメ」，「積極的着地」という3つの要素へと分節化してとらえるとともに，それらを段階的に身に付け「積極的着地」を習得する5つの練習方法を考案し，実施した．取り組みの結果，H競技者は「積極的着地」を習得し，自己最高記録を14.71m (+0.4) から15.48m (+1.8) へ向上することができた．メンバーチェック等を含めた俯瞰的分析より，本研究で取り組んだ多くの練習は，「積極的着地」を導き出す手段の一つとなる可能性が示された．

Acquisition of an active landing technique in the step phase of the triple jump: A jumper who, despite heel pain, improved his record from 14.71 m to 15.48 m
The present study examined the practicality and validity of training exercises done by a male university triple jumper (jumper H) with the goal of his having an improved active landing technique. Measures included his scores in competition, changes in his consciousness and awareness of his movements, and his form. The form of a top-class jumper who had mastered an active landing technique was analyzed, segmenting it into 3 elements: posture in the air at the hop, maintaining (tame), and an active landing. These elements were then used to develop 5 training exercises aimed at the acquisition of an active landing technique. After practicing these training exercises for 5 months, jumper H acquired an active landing technique and succeeded in improving his best record from 14.71 m (+0.4) to 15.48 m (+1.8). These results suggest that these exercises may be a way to train jumpers to have an active landing technique.

本研究は1500mTT走において1人走と2人走の違いがパフォーマンス，ペース，および，生理的応答や心理的状態に与える影響を検証することを目的とした．被験者は習慣的にレクリエーションとしてランニングを行っている男子大学生・院生の6名であった．被験者は400mトラックで1500mTT走を1人走と2人走で各7回ずつ行った．その結果，ライバルが存在する2人走の1500mTT走の記録は1人走のそれに比べ5.9秒（2.1%）有意に速くなった（p<0.05）．しかし，両者の1500mTT走フィニッシュ時の最高心拍数（HRmax），ピーク血中乳酸濃度（peakBLa）及び主観的運動強度（RPE）に有意な差が認められなかった．1500mTT走のw-up前の二次元気尺度（TDMS）の活性度は2人走が1人走よりも有意に高かった（p<0.05）．従って，2人走で競争しながら1500mTT走を行うことは1人走よりも記録を高め，その原因の1つが生理的変動よりも走る前の活性度（やる気度）の高まりに負うことが考えられる．すなわち，競争相手（ライバル）がいる（2人走）場合はいない場合（1人走）に比べ，高い外因性の動機づけが生じることを示唆した．

Influences of absence (solo) and presence (head-to-head competition) of a competitor on psychological factors, overall running performance, and pacing during 1500-m runs
Purpose: The aim of the present study was to analyze possible influences of the absence (solo) and presence (head-to-head competition; HHC) of a competitor during 1,500-m-runs on runners’ overall performance, pacing, physiological responses, and psychological condition. Method: The participants, six male runners, ran 1,500 meters on a 400-meter running track, and their runs were timed. Each of them ran alone and also in competition with another participant (head-to-head competition). Results: The run times when runners were competing with another runner were 5.9 seconds faster (2.1%) than when they ran alone (p<0.05). Immediately after the runs, no significant differences were found in the following physiological parameters: maximum heart rate (HRmax), peripheral capillary oxygen saturation (SpO2), peak blood lactate (peakBLa), and rated perceived exertion (RPE). However, before the runs, the level of activity of an index included in the Two-Dimensional Mood Scale (TDMS) was significantly higher when runners were going to compete against another runner (p<0.05). Conclusions: Although the runners’psychological condition changed, as indicated by their responses on the Two-Dimensional Mood Scale, in that they perceived that their performance would be improved by the presence of a competitor, their physiological responses were not significantly different when they were running alone compared to when they ran with a competitor. These findings suggest that presence of a competitor may have been sufficient for generating a higher level of motivation than when running alone in the absence of a competitor.

標的をめがけて正確に物体を投射する課題は多くのスポーツで要求される．そのため，個人に応じた至適な投射角とスピードの組み合わせを具体的に提示することは，競技力向上に有益である．本研究では，個人の特性に応じた結果に対してロバストな投射パラメータを推定する方法を提案することを目的とした．具体的には，個人の動作のばらつきを測定して個人のばらつきを確率密度関数で表現し，個人のばらつきを考慮した投射シミュレータを構築した．次に，投射シミュレータを用いて最適化計算によって投射パラメータの最適解を求める．提案した手法の妥当性を確認するために，1名の熟練者のフリースロー課題から得たデータに適用したところ，概ね被験者のシュート成功率が再現された．本手法を応用することで，個人に合わせた至適な投射パラメータの組み合わせを具体的に提示するだけでなく，克服すべき課題が投射パラメータのばらつきの減少にあるか，パラメータの組み合わせを変えることにあるかを提示するなど，より具体的な個別フィードバックを提示することが期待できる．

Method for estimation of robust release parameters that takes individual variability into account
Many sports require athletes to release an object accurately toward a target. For that reason, it is useful to suggest to individual players an optimal combination of releasing angle and speed in order to improve competitive power. The present study proposes a method of estimating robust release parameters that meet individual players’ characteristics. Specifically, the variation of individuals’ motions was measured and expressed as a probability density function, and a release simulator was created taking into account the variation across individuals. Next, the release simulator was used to calculate the optimal solution for the release parameter. In order to examine the validity of this method, it was applied to the free throw data of an experienced basketball player. The results of this simulation confirmed that the success rate of his shots was roughly reproducible. This method not only suggests an optimal combination of release parameters, but also identifies individual-specific problems that need to be overcome, such as a decreasing variation in the release parameter or a changing combination of parameters.

テニスにおいてサーバーが優位であるということは多くの先行研究が支持しているが，一方で女子選手におけるサーバーの優位性は男子選手に比べて小さいことも指摘されている．そこで，本研究ではWTAランキング100位以内の女子選手のサービスのスタッツとパフォーマンスの関係を検討することを目的とした．WTAランキング100位以内の選手のサービスに関する各スタッツとパフォーマンスの関係を比較した結果，1試合あたりのダブルフォルトの数はキープ率と関係なく，1stサービスが入った際のポイント取得率がパフォーマンスに大きく影響していた．また，1試合あたりのエース数は1stサービスが入った際のポイント取得率と強い相関が認められた．これらの結果から，近年のWTAランキングトップ100位の選手では，1stサービスを攻撃に結び付けることが重要であり，1stサービスでアドバンテージを獲得することを目的とし，ある程度のリスクを許容して強いサービスを選択していると推察される．また，エース数などは容易に測定できることから，本研究の結果は選手のサービスゲームの目標値を設定することにも有用であろう．

Trends in the top 100 players' serves in the 2018 Women's Tennis Association tournaments
The results of many published studies have supported the generalization that the server is always has an advantage over the receiver in tennis, but some research has suggested that this advantage is less in women’s than in men’s tennis. However, the present study examined the relationship between service statistics and the performance of only women tennis players, specifically players who ranked in the top 100 in recent Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) rankings. Analysis of the data suggested that the number of double faults per game was not related to the service games won percentage, but rather that the scoring rate on the first serve has a substantial effect on performance. Further, the number of aces served per game correlated strongly with the scoring rate on the first serve. These results suggest that, in these top women players, it was very important to have an offensive first serve in order to get an advantage, even though there are risks. Because the number of aces can be counted easily, the conclusions from the present study may suggest a useful target for players' serves.

大学生の女子バスケットボール選手9名を対象に，体力・技術を客観的に評価する13項目のテストを行った．加えて，競技場面で求められる体力・技術の達成度についての主観的な評価項目を14種類設定し，それぞれを10段階で評価した．そして両者を関連づけて，各選手の課題をフィードバックし，8ヶ月間の取り組みを行った後に再評価を行った．その結果，チーム全体で改善に取り組んだ持久力には向上がみられたが，個人に取り組みを委ねた項目では改善した者としない者とがみられた．10段階で主観評価を行うことの信頼性を検討するために，指導者による評価と学生による評価とを比較した結果，一致度は高く，一定の信頼性があることが窺えた．主観的な評価項目と，それに対応すると考えられる客観的な評価項目との間には，ほとんどでr=0.7〜0.8程度の相関が認められたが，相関図でそのばらつきの状況を見ることで，各選手の特性をより適確に評価できると考えられた．以上を考察した結果，本手法には今後さらに改善すべき点は残されているものの，選手が抱えている課題を可視化し，競技力向上の示唆を得る上で有効な手法になり得ると考えられた．

Method aimed at improving the competitive skill of university female basketball players by using subjective and objective evaluations
In the present study, 9 university female basketball players were tested on 13 items objectively evaluating physical fitness and technical skills, as well as 14 subjective items intended to evaluate on a 10-level scale the ratio of achievement of physical and technical abilities that are required in basketball games. The results were combined and fed back to each player and re-evaluated after practice for 8 months. The results suggests that the endurance of all members of the team improved through conscious effort, but the extent of personal improvement of other physical or technical skills differed across players due to leaving the task of improvement up to the players' discretion. In order to assess the reliability of the subjective evaluation method, coaches’ evaluations were compared with those made by the players. In many ways, they agreed, and so the method was judged to be fairly reliable. Because the subjective and objective evaluations were found to be correlated (r=0.7-0.8), a correlation diagram was created to provide a more accurate evaluation of each player's characteristics. Those results suggested that the present method, albeit with some room for improvement, may be a useful way to visualize each player's characteristics and may provide hints for improving the players’competitiveness.

日本男子バスケットボール界の最高峰リーグの1つであった、NBLに所属する12チームによる2013-2014年のレギュラーシーズン全324ゲームを対象に、独自に考案した方法を用いて、バスケットボール競技におけるゲーム時のフィールド・ゴール（FG：3ポイントシュート（3p）＋2ポイントシュート（2p））、3p、2p、およびフリースロー（FT）成功率についての新基準値を以下のように設定し、この意義について検討した．その結果、新基準値�@（チームが勝利するためにプレイヤーが貢献できるシュートの成功率の最低ライン）は、FGが43%、3pが38%、2pが52%、FT 76％であった．また、新基準値�A（チームにとってプレイヤーが最低限の役割を果たすシュート成功率のライン）は、FGが 43%（新基準値�@と重複）、3pが 32%、2p が49%、およびFTが 63%であった．これらの基準値、特に新基準値�Aでは、高校や大学、および一般等のバスケットボール選手にとって、日本のトップリーグのゲーム時の得点方法別のシュート成功率の基準値が“目指せる範囲にあるだろう”と考え、彼らが試合に出場してシュートを放つ上での達成可能な目標値となる可能性があると考えられる．また、ゲームを采配するコーチにとっても、プレイヤーを評価する一指標となるのではないかと考えられる．

New standards for shot success rate in basketball games based on a point-gaining method: Developed from statistics of games in the Japan top men’s league
The present study proposes a new standard for basketball games, based on the success rate of field goals (FG: 3-point shots (3p) + 2-point shots (2p)), 3p, 2p, and free throws (FT) obtained from 324 basketball games played in 2013-2014 by the 12 teams belonging to the National Basketball League (NBL), which is the top men’s basketball league in Japan. From this analysis, two new standards were developed. New standard #1 for the minimum shot success rate required in the evaluation of each player’s contribution for winning the game is 43% for FG, 38% for 3p, 52% for 2p and 76% for FT. New standard #2 for the shot success rate required for each player to make minimum contribution is 43% for FG, 32% for 3p, 49% for 2p, and 63% for FT. These new standards, particularly new standard #2, are considered to be attainable targets for high school, university, and general basketball players. The standards will also be used by coaches to evaluate players.

本研究では，剣道における踏み込み音の違いが，打突における強さと冴えの評価に及ぼす影響を明らかにすることを目的とした．そのために，踏み込み音を可変した映像資料を用いて，一対比較法による評価テストを実施した．その結果，異なる踏み込み方による音の違いおよびその音量は，冴えや強度の評価に影響を及ぼすことが明らかとなった．以上のことから，打突の冴えや強度の聴覚的判断において，打突音に踏み込み音が加わることで，良い評価を受けることが窺えた．また，その踏み込み音は，足裏全体で床に接地する踏み込み方によって発生する音が好ましいとの知見が得られた．

Influence of the step-in sound on evaluation of the skill and strength of striking in kendo: Paired comparisons using videos with variable sounds
The present study evaluated effects of the step-in sound on evaluation of the strength and skill of striking in kendo. The evaluation tests were analyzed by a paired comparison method, using audiovisual material that included various step-in sounds. The result revealed that differences in the volume of the step-in sound affected the evaluation of the skill and strength of striking. This suggests that a better auditory judgment of the skill and strength of striking may be obtained by adding a step-in sound. Also, a better step-in sound was found to be generated if the entire sole of the foot hit the floor.